Isu Dasar: Tekanan Ekonomi dan Tanggung Jawab Sosial Media Massa

Bahwa saat ini pertumbuhan pasar yang semakin bersaing membuat institusi media menjadi ekspansi bisnis para pengusaha, sehingga banyak keputusan-keputusan yang diambil berdasarkan keuntungan komersil belaka.

Semua media berlomba-lomba membuat tayangan yang kreatif dan menarik perhatian para konsumen, sehingga merebut hati pemirsa. Dan hal ini di manfaatkan oleh para media untuk menayangkan iklan-iklan agar dapat di pertontonkan ke para pemirsa. Tentu saja hal tersebut merupakan pemasukan yang terbesar bagi insitusi media, bahkan tidak bisa dipungkiri lagi bahwa pemasukan keuangan media adalah iklan. Tetapi yang terjadi adalah bahwa pemasang iklan dapat memutuskan apakah suatu program dapat ditayangkan atau tidak, sehingga kekuasan menjadi di tangan pemasang iklan.

Sebuah idealisme jurnalistik terkadang memang dikalahkan oleh sebuah kekuasan keuangan. Manajemen media sudah mulai di rasuki oleh teori-teori marketing yang penuh strategi untuk meraup keuntungan komersil. Sehingga keputusan-keputusan manajemen media hanya berdasarkan sebuah keuangan semata, dan meletakkan idealisme jurnalistik ke urutan paling bawah. Hal ini menyebabkan adanya dilema antara nilai etis antara tanggung jawab sosial dan tekanan ekonomi yang ada demi kelangsungan institusi media itu sendiri.

ISU MORAL

Tekanan ekonomi memang sudah menjadi alasan utama untuk semua orang bebas melakukan sesuatu. Tidak terlepas dari sebuah institusi media, yang pada awalnya menyampaikan informasi yang benar dan akurat tanpa ada pengaruh atau tekanan oleh sesuatu apapun. Tetapi saat ini media dijadikan sebuah sarana untuk para pengusaha-pengusaha memperluas jangkauan pasarnya. Seperti contoh, membentuk opini publik tentang produk mereka, mengangkat citra sebuah perusahaan, menghadirkan sebuah kasus untuk menjatuhkan para pesaing dan semua ini hanya berdasarkan tekanan ekonomi semata.

Alhasil semua tayangan media dijadikan pasar yang memperlihatkan semua produk dari pemasang iklan dan para sponsor-sponsor acara, yang membuat pemirsa menjadi konsumtif. Lain lagi dengan tayangan-tayangan yang memperoleh rating tertinggi adalah tayangan yang bisa mengakibatkan munculnya perilaku anti sosial, dan itu jelas bertentangan dengan nilai-nilai etis yang berlaku. Saat dilema antara rasa tanggung jawab sosial itu muncul dengan tekanan ekonomi baik itu bagi kepentingan pribadi ataupun perusahaan, maka nilai-nilai etis akan luntur sendirinya dengan kekuasan sebuah tekanan ekonomi.

LATAR BELAKANG

Pertumbuhan pasar yang semakin hari semakin bersaing telah menjadikan kekayaan materil dan keuntungan komersil sebagai tujuan dasar dari sebuah perusahaan. Pendekatan ekonomi menjadikan perusahaan semakin agresif dan tidak mengenal waktu istirahat untuk berkompetisi memperluas jaringan usahanya.

Pada jaman saat ini tidak usah diragukan lagi bahwa ekonomi merupakan motivator yang sangat kuat dan menjadi pertimbangan utama dalam pengambilan keputusan. Konflik-konflik inilah yang menimbulkan dilema antara pengambilan keputusan berdasarkan nilai-nilai etis yang berlaku dan tekanan ekonomi demi keberlangsungan perusahaan.

Seorang idealis yang berprinsip kepentingan moral adalah suatu yang penting dapat ditaklukan semata-mata karena alasan ekonomi dan menolak semua prinsipnya mengenai tanggung jawab sosial. Tetapi banyak pula yang perusahaan yang keuangannya sudah solid, mengalokasikan keuntungannya atas nama tanggung jawab sosial dengan menyumbangkan dana kepada karyawan ataupun masyarakat.

Sebuah pertanyaan muncul di kala pertimbangan ekonomi untuk mencari keuntungan komersil menjadi keputusan yang sangat mendasar dibandingkan pertimbangan moral dan tanggung jawab sosial.

PEMBAHASAN

Di dalam masyarakat kapitalistik, tekanan ekonomi dapat muncul dari berbagai arah. Tetapi biasanya muncul dari 3 arah berikut ini :

1. Para pendukung keuangan, seperti investor, pemasang iklan, klien, para langganan

2. Kompetisi

3. Publik pada umumnya.

Kebijakan-kebijakan ekonomi yang dihasilkan akan mengaitkan satu faktor dan menimbulkan dampak kepada faktor lainnya, oleh karena itu ketiga faktor ini saling terkait antara satu dengan lainnya. Sebagai contoh, para pesaing terkadang memaksa perusahaan untuk membuat keputusan-keputusan yang diluar dari kebiasaan demi memenangkan kepentingan keuangan.

Media adalah sesuatu yang unik karena bisnis mereka mengambil keuntungan tidak langsung dari konsumen tetapi langsung dari pemasang iklan. Produk media adalah berita, informasi, dan juga hiburan. Produk tersebut telah memberikan suatu output yang berbeda dengan industri lainnya.

Perkembangan media yang menjadi sorotan para pembisnis membawa setiap keputusan manajemen lebih kearah komersial dan keuntungan semata. Konflik antara keuangan media dan tanggung jawab sosial dapat dicerminkan dalam gejala-gejala sebagai berikut :

1. Kecenderungan ke arah konsentrasi kepemilikan media

2. Penanaman prinsip-prinsi pemasaran dalam manajemen media

3. Pengaruh iklan pada media.

1. Kepemilikan Media

Kepemilikan media telah menjadi trend karena bisnis media saat ini merupakan bisnis yang dapat menghasilkan keuntungan bagi mereka. Karena itu kekuasaan atas ide-ide yang kreatif harus bersaing ketat dengan kekuasaan ekonomi untuk mencari keuntungan yang sebesar-besarnya.

Dalam sebuah media kualitas produk dan kualitas editorial merupakan sebuah ukuran sukses bagi para editor ataupun praktisi media. Tetapi sekarang, kualitas dari manajamen dan kesehatan keuangan juga merupakan dua faktor yang sangat penting, bahkan untuk tujuan perusahaan kualitas dari para editorial diletakkan pada urutan kesekian.

Ulasan media dapat menghasilkan sebuah penciptaan image pada sebuah produk yang berasal dari sumber polling yang berkaitan dengan sumber daya ekonomi. Tetapi di lain pihak pemilik modal sering memberikan suntikan dana segar yang mendorong ke arah perbaikan keuangan perusahaan dan berdampak pada editorial dari sebuah produk.

Kecenderungan lain yang akan muncul adalah tekanan-tekanan financial yang merupakan hasil dari gabungan dari non editorial operasional dan berita yang kompetitif.

Ancaman yang paling serius bagi kebebasan institusi media adalah kepemilikan korporasi diluar institusi media yang tidak mempunyai latar belakang dan komitmen terhadap jurnalistik. Dan yang menjadi dasar mereka hanyalah profitibilitas sebuah institusi. Dilema ini pernah di tulis oleh Conrad Fink di dalam etika media: Di dalam dan di luar ruang jurnalistik yang pada intinya menulis. “Seorang editor dan pemimpin redaksi seharusnya lebih memperhatikan kode etik

jurnalistik yang bertanggung jawab sehingga menghasilkan tulisan yang bermutu dan berdampak langsung dengan profitibilitas. Tetapi mata rantai bisnis media pada saat ini tidak seperti itu. Di dalam dunia bisnis manajemen juga memerlukan seorang akuntan, pengacara dan tenaga yang bukan seorang jurnalis. Mereka diperlukan untuk mendukung agar mutu tulisan dan bisnis dapat berjalan seiring”

Kepemilikan media saat ini tidak hanya membawahi satu institusi media tetapi para pengusaha-pengusaha media melebarkan sayapnya sehingga mempunyai banyak media, baik surat kabar, televisi, radio, maupun media online seperti internet. Dan hal tersebut berasal dari pertumbuhan teknologi sehingga terciptalah keanekaragaman program.

Konsolidasi media pada saat ini sudah tidak dapat dihindarkan malah sudah menjadi trend. Kualitas isi berita terkadang memperlihatkan tidak dapat menaikkan rating dan sirkulasi surat kabar, hal ini sangat membuat para eksekutif ketar-ketir karena mereka tujuan mereka adalah profit. Merger dan konsolidasi tidak bisa dihindarkan lagi untuk peningkatan kualitas, tetapi hasil akhir tergantung pengelolaan yang baik dan di sesuaikan nilai dan budaya yang berlaku di suatu masyarakat.

2. Hubungan Marketing dengan Media Massa

Tujuan pokok dari institusi media seperti surat kabar, majalah, telivisi, production house, radio dan media online adalah profit. Sebuah bisnis haruslah menguntungkan karena itu akan menarik para investor untuk menginvestasikan modalnya. Keuntungan tersebut akan digunakan untuk perluasan bisnis mereka dan meningkatkan mutu baik peralatan maupun meningkatkan mutu sumber daya manusia.

Dalam sebuah buku menyebutkan bahwa marketing adalah sebuah peperangan dimana pesaing atau kompetitor adalah musuh dan para konsumen adalah dasar untuk menjadi menang. Analogi ini dapat diterapkan di sebuah media, yaitu petarungan perasaan dan pikiran pada konsumen media tidak akan pernah berakhir. Sirkulasi, rating, berbagi emosional kepada para pendengar dan hasil penjualan karcis dari sebuah film merupakan ukuran sukses di lingkungan media.

Konsep dari marketing untuk media adalah mencakup semua departemen yang terkait termasuk divisi pemberitaan yang harus memberikan kontribusi dengan mengemas berita semenarik mungkin untuk menarik perhatian para pendengar atau pembaca dan juga menggali potensial ekonomi yang ada dan merebut pangsa pasar.

Berita-berita lokal merupakan sarana untuk strategi marketing dan konsultasi dengan membuat program-program dimana para nara sumber membagikan informasi kepada para pendengar mengenai produk dan kegunaan produk tersebut. Penyajian program-program talk show dan informasi-informasi ringan yang dikemas se-kreatif mungkin oleh para produser dan manajeman untuk membujuk para konsumen agar selalu setia dengan media pilihannya.

Sebuah surat kabar pun tidak terlepas dari konsep marketing massa. Informasi ringan saat ini presentasenya meningkat untuk mengisi spot atau space di luar space untuk iklan. Seperti halnya iklan yang menarik perhatian para konsumen tertentu, artikel ini juga dirancang khusus untuk menarik perhatian kepada target pendengar tertentu.

Kecenderungan yang mungkin mengganggu adalah tipisnya atau kaburnya antara kepentingan editorial dan kepentingan komersial. Banyak surat kabar menampilkan supplement dan menawarkan artikel-artikel yang berkaitan dengan sesuatu tema yang menarik para pembaca. Walaupun informasi supplemen ini memang bermanfaat bagi para pembaca tetapi editorial dari isi informasi lebih bersifat etalase bagi para pengiklan.

Variasi dari editorial sebuah produk lebih di sebut advertorias dan penyajiannya di surat kabar atau majalah. Supplemen ini sebenarnya merupakan iklan terselubung karena para pengiklan membayar untuk dikemas sebagai editorial. Editorial ini menyerupai sebuah artikel dengan bahasa-bahasa informatif tetapi pada kenyataannya artikel tersebut merupakan sarana untuk menyampaikan pesan dari sebuah iklan.

Pengemasan berita dan hiburan sebagai produk telah terbukti dalam mencapai sasaran pemasaran. Berita tidak lagi di kemas hanya untuk kepentingan publik semata, tetapi sudah menjadi produk yang dapat dijual kepada konsumen dan dapat memberikan kontribusi terhadap suksesnya rencana pemasaran dan semua biaya operasional.

Sebuah surat kabar harus memposisikan diri mereka sebagai seorang jurnalistik untuk memaksimalkan profit dengan berita-berita mereka yang diasumsikan sebagai produk. Dan juga diperlukan rencana pemasaran yang matang untuk menarik perhatian pembaca yang berpendidikan tinggi dan dengan level ekonomi menengah ke atas. Para direktur pemasaran merasa bahwa tingginya pembaca dengan level ekonomi menengah kebawah akan mengurangi iklan yang masuk ke surat kabar.

Usaha untuk meningkatkan pendapatan institusi media akan menimbulkan benturan-benturan terhadap nilai-nilai etik jurnalistik. Benturan tersebut membuat praktisi media mempunyai dilema terhadap institusi mereka, kepentingan diri sendiri, dan kesejahteraan masyarakat.

Tidak ada hukum yang membenarkan pengorbanan mutu tulisan untuk memenuhi permintaan pasar. Meskipun demikian, ini adalah isu yang dihadapi oleh para pemimpin media saat ini. Dan pada akhirnya keputusan tergantung pada kepekaan terhadap moral para pembuat keputusan. Mereka juga harus mempertimbangkan tanggung jawab sosial di dalam sebuah industri dengan konsep pemasaran.

3. Posisi Iklan Dalam Media

Iklan adalah penyokong ekonomi utama untuk meningkatkan kualitas dari fungsi informasi dan hiburan dari komunikasi massa. Karena dari iklan lah media mendapatkan sokongan keuangan baik dari sektor pemerintahan dan politik, maka dari itu timbullah sebuah pemikiran dimana media sangat bergantung dengan sektor komersil.

Tekanan ekonomi yang timbul akibat dampak dari pengaruh iklan dapat dilihat sedikitnya di tiga area :

1. Jumlah dari materi komersil yang dapat menentukan lamanya iklan tersebut dapat ditampilkan (spot) bukan pada saat jatah untuk iklan melainkan untuk berita ataupun hiburan.

2. Pemotongan anggaran untuk iklan dari para klien yang disebabkan oleh resesi ekonomi, atau pengalokasian dana iklan dari satu media ke media lainnya sangat mempengaruhi perekonomian suatu institusi media. Jika mengalami pergolakan finansial seperti ini divisi pemberitaan akan mengencangkan budget yang ada. Keadaan seperti ini akan berdampak penurunan mutu tulisan.

3. Pesan-pesan komersial akan mempengaruhi isi dari pesan yang bukan komersial dan otomatis juga memberi tekanan kepada para pimpinan media. Pemasang iklan dapat langsung bereaksi bahkan sampai dengan penarikan iklan mereka dari surat kabar jika ada sesuatu hal yang tidak menyenangkan para pemasang iklan.

Tujuan dari iklan adalah untuk mempengaruhi seseorang di dalam suatu lingkungan. Organisasi media yang masih dalam skala kecil terkadang mengalah terhadap permintaan para pemasang iklan seperti menolak suatu berita atau program yang dianggap menyerang jaringan para pemasang iklan. Pemasang iklan juga dapat menyerang program dengan iklan-iklan produk mereka dan para pimpinan media juga tidak dapat menolaknya. Besar dan stabilnya suatu institusi media karena di gencarkan oleh serangan iklan-iklan bahkan kepentingann jurnalistik pun kadang-kadang dikorbankan atas nama kenyataan ekonomi.

Rangsangan psikologis merupakan sasaran utama untuk iklan, dan sekarang konsumen dibuat kebingungan untuk menghadapi rangsangan-rangsangan tersebut. Karena media menyediakan sarana untuk pada pengiklan mengakses emosional dan pikiran para konsumen.

Pengukuran dampak sosial yang diakibatkan oleh pesan-pesan komersil tidaklah mungkin dapat di ukur secara angka-angka. Tetapi dampak tersebut dapat dilihat bahwa iklan dapat meningkatkan daya beli atau konsumtifnya para konsumen.

Riset terbaru menemukan bahwa iklan dapat mempengaruhi emosi konsumen sehingga konsumen tidak memikirkan apakah produk tersebut masuk akal, dapat di terapkan dengan nilai-nilai atau kehidupan sehari-hari. Jika memang riset ini benar apakah kita harus meminta pertanggung jawaban moral para pemasang iklan yang telah menyerbu secara besar-besaran emosi dan nilai-nilai pokok yang dianut oleh para konsumen untuk menggunakan produk mereka.

Iklan adalah komunikasi persuasif dan ini merupakan ketentuan yang berlaku untuk menerima berbagai alasan baik itu menawarkan secara halus atau penyampaian informasi secara selektif untuk menarik para konsumen untuk membeli produk tersebut.

Dengan kata lain pangsa pasar untuk ide dapat diramalkan yaitu individu akan membuat keputusan secara sadar jika mereka memiliki pengaruh untuk mengendalikan informasi yang ada dan itu sangat masuk akal. Selektifnya dan pembatasan informasi produk yang disampaikan oleh kebanyakan iklan telah membatasi manfaat produk itu sendiri. Tetapi pada waktu yang sama para konsumen mulai terbujuk dengan iklan tersebut dan mencari lebih tahu tentang produk tersebut dan pada akhirnya mengambil keputusan untuk membeli.

Analisa terakhir adalah seseorang harus dapat dengan etis bagaimana memandang dengan tepat peran iklan sebagai kepentingan pribadi, kepentingan institusi dan kepentingan moral sebagai tanggung jawab sosial media kepada masyarakat. Tentu saja semuanya harus berjalan seiring, tetapi terkadang sulit terlaksana. Perhatian para pimpinan media terhadap nilai etis telah luntur dan mereka menganggap nilai sebuah iklan lebih penting. Banyaknya iklan sebagai usaha pemasaran dapat menimbulkan image perusahaan dan akan meningkatkan hubungan yang baik dengan para investor. Mereka percaya bahwa iklan dapat berperan menyediakan informasi berharga kepada masyarakat dan meningkatkan kesehatan ekonomi institusi. Dengan demikian fungsi tanggung jawab sosial dari perusahaan seharusnya menjadi dasar etika untuk menghasilkan informasi yang netral kepada masyarakat.

Tekanan Ekonomi : Hipotesa Studi Kasus

Jika berdiskusi tentang tekanan ekonomi tidak akan ada habisnya dan pengambilan keputusan berdasarkan ekonomi adalah keputusan yang paling baik. Tetapi kasus-kasus yang muncul membuat para praktisi media mengalami dilema antara nilai moral dan tekanan ekonomi.

Suatu konsekuensi yang iambil berdasarkan pertimbangan tekanan ekonomi menimbulkan dampak baik jangka panjang maupun jangka pendek. Ada waktu dimana pertimbangan untuk keputusan membutuhkan keberanian, seperti ketika pemasang iklan menarik dukungannya dari suatu program. Pemasangan iklan tidak berhak memberhentikan suatu program karena yang membuat keputusan adalah direktur program tetapi apakah suatu acara atau program dapat disiarkan jika tidak adanya dukungan udara dan pemasang iklan. Berbagai tekanan-tekanan ini dapat mengakibatkan hilangnya kredibilitas dari para institusi media. Dari prespektif kepentingan bahwa moralitas tidaklah sepenting efek potensial dari keputusan-keputusan yang diambil.

Jalan tengah dengan win-win situation tidak selalu menyediakan suatu alternatif sehat dalam menghadapi tekanan ekonomi. Meskipun demikian, mempertimbangkan keputusan yang memihak ide-ide kreatif dan informatif adalah mustahil jika mengabaikan pertimbangan keuangan mungkin juga di beberapa situasi keputusan untuk mengalah pada tekanan ekonomi sangat diragukan, untuk itu dibutuhkan suatu strategi untuk meminimalisasi konflik ini. Karena beberapa institusi ada yang sudah dapat melewati keadaan yang esktrim untuk kepentingan komersil dan nilai-nilai sosial yang ada.

Dalam beberapa kasus keuntungan komersil adalah alat dalam memenuhi kebutuhan dan kewajiban institusi kepada masyarakat. Sebagai contoh stasiun televisi yang dapat menghindari godaan untuk mencari keuntungan yang berlebih dan membakal dapat menghasilkan program yang mutu yang bagus bagi masyarakat.

Kasus 1 : Koran Lokal dan Perseroan

Kerja sama antara kota Portsmouth dan Acme Industries merupakan sesuatu keputusan yang bagus. Karena perkembangan financial kota Portsmouth kurang berkembang. Acme Industri sendiri merupakan perusahaan manufaktur untuk pesawat terbang dan bekerja sama dengan Departemen Pertahanan untuk pengadaan helicopter, tanks dan perlengkapan perang. Sehingga Acme Industries dapat mendukung industri kecil dan otomatis akan meningkatkan financial Portsmouts di masa yang akan datang karena akan meningkatkan jumlah pekerja dan pendidikan yang bagus bagi penduduk Portsmouts.

Untuk meyakinkan bahwa Acme Industries ini sangat penting bagi penduduk Portsmouth, mereka mendirikan Rumah sakit, taman dan meyumbangkan dananya untuk amal. PR Acme Industries sangatlah peka akan hal ini dan ingin membangun citra bahwa Acme Industries sangatlah penting bagi kehidupan penduduk Portsmouth. PR Acme Industries dengan rutin mengirimkan press release ke media-media dengan menuliskan berita-berita mengenai aktivitas-aktivitas perusahaan yang berkaitan dengan perluasan bisnis, kerja sama dengan Departemen Pertahanan dan lain-lain.

The Banner-Herald adalah surat kabar yang menjadi target utama bagi Acme Industri untuk rencana PR mereka. Jim Hale, Managing Director dari Banner Herald sangat berkesan dengan perkembangan kota Portsmouth sejak kedatangan Acme Industries. Ditambah lagi iklan mengenai Acme Industries yang akan mendatangkan keuntungan besar bagi Banner Herald.

Berita-berita mengenai Acme Industries merupakan seusatu yang regular dan isi dari berita selalu dalam pengawasan PR Acme Industries.

Tetapi ada satu reporter yaitu Fred Simons menerima berita via telepon bahwa jatuhnya helikopter militer telah menewaskan beberapa kru merupakan helikopter buatan Acme Industries. Helikopter tersebut di buat dengan kontruksi yang buruk dengan mengurangi standar kualitas yang ada. Dan salah satu pekerja mengatakan hal tersebut di lakukan untuk mempercepat pengiriman dan meningkatkan profit margin.

Telepon kedua datang lagi dengan membenarkan berita tersebut dan mempunyai salinan data-data dari pemotongan biaya yang mengakibatkan pengurangan kualitas.

Hale mempertimbangkan untuk menampilkan berita ini dengan pertimbangan sbb:

· Jika skandal ini di muat maka kontrak dengan departemen pertahanan akan di review kembali.

· Perusahaan-perusahaan kecil yang bergantung dengan Acme Industries akan kehilangan kontrak dan ini akan berdampak pada financial bagi perusahaan.

· Otomatis tidak ada pendapatan dari iklan Acme Industries di surat kabar Banner-Herald.

Dilain pihak insting jurnalistik Hale mengatakan bahwa ini adalah sesuatu yang penting untuk di muat. Karena menyangkut hal kredibilitas surat kabar lokal jika skandal ini lebih dulu sampai ke media nasional. Dan Banner Herald akan di cap sebagai media komersil. Tetapi Hale juga mengakui bahwa Acme Industries sangat meningkatkan perekonomian daerah dan dia percaya bahwa kebenaran di mata masyarakat terkadang sangat selektif.

Ulasan kasus

Ini merupakan kasus yang kompleks karena banyak kepentingan yang terlibat pada kasus ini baik kredibilitas surat kabar, kelangsungan surat kabar maupun perekonomian daerah.

Kasus ini merupakan tanggung jawab sosial bukanlah suatu skandal. Dan ini merupakan dilema bagi surat kabar lokal yang kelangsungannya bergantung pada pangsa pasar. Berharap setiap praktisi media dapat melihat dampak atau efek kasus per-kasus terhadap kesejahteraan masyarakat.

Keputusan Hale untuk memuat berita tersebut adalah tepat karena terjadi pemberitaan berimbang dengan mengakui keberadaan Acme untuk kelangsungan perekonomian di Portsmouth dan Banner-Herald dan juga mengangkat masalah yang terjadi.

Kasus 2 : Iklan Bioskop X-Rated dan Tekanan masyarakat

Meningkatnya kekerasan, perkosaan dan pelecehan seksual di kota Pleasantville diduga karena bergesernya nilai-nilai yang memperbolehkan segala sesuatu dan bergesernya nilai dalam keluarga. Tetapi menurut kelompok masyarakat Peduli Moral dan Susila (KPMS) munculnya bioskop X-Rated dan toko -toko yang menjual buku untuk dewasa sebagai faktor utama meneningkatnya angka kriminalitas, kekerasan, perkosaan dan pelecehan seksual.

Kelompok Masyarakat Peduli Moral dan Susila (KPMS) yang diketuai oleh Elsie Johnson menemui Walter Byers, seorang manager periklanan di surat kabar Pleasantville Beacon. Johnson mengutarakan maksudnya untuk menolak dan mencopot iklan dua bioskop porno yang ada di Pleasantville Beacon karena iklan tersebut secara tidak langsung memberikan keuntungan pada bioskop tersebut. Dan di tambahkan pula bahwa sangatlah tidak bijaksana jika Beacon mendukung penyebaran pornografi yang mengakibatkan peningkatan angka kekerasan seksual.

Jika permohonan ini tidak di penuhi maka (KPMS) akan memboikot para klien Beacon untuk mencabut semua iklan mereka dari Beacon.

Byers berterima kasih atas kunjungan Elsie Johnson dan mengatakan bahwa ketentuan surat kabar menerima hanya menerima berbagai iklan dari bisnis yang sudah di legitimasi, tetapi dia berjanji akan mempertimbangkan permintaan beliau.

Pertimbangan Byers adalah ;

1. Boikot terhadap media kebanyakan tidak selalu berhasil

2. Dampak secara financial tidak terlalu signifikan jika iklan bioskop di turunkan

3. Tetapi jika tidak diturunkan akan berdampak terhadap reputasi Beacon dan sirkulasi surat kabar akan menurun.

4. Bahwa tidak adanya korelasi langsung antara toko buku dewasa dengan kejahatan seksual, karena toko buku tersebut ada sebelum peningkatan kejahatan.

Dan pada akhirnya Byers memutuskan untuk tidak memuat iklan tersebut dengan pertimbangan tanggung jawab sosial yang di emban oleh surat kabar. Dan satu-satunya yang akan komplain jika iklan ini tidak dimuat adalah pemilik X-rated itu sendiri.

KESIMPULAN

Dengan mudahnya sekarang para masyarakat dapat mencari informasi yang dinginkan baik dari informasi politik atau informasi yang hanya sekedar gaya hidup dan sekedar hiburan. Namun sayang kemudahan-kemudahan tersebut mengakibatkan maraknya sajian-sajian acara yang mengarahkan masyarakat untuk lebih konsumtif, pornografi maupun perilaku antisosial. Para media tidak lagi berupaya untuk menciptakan kreatifitas yang bisa dijual dan benar-benar memberi nilai tambah bagi pembelinya. Kecenderungan tayangan ini jelas telah menggeserkan nilai-nilai moral yang telah lama di anut oleh bangsa kita. Idealisme moral yang ada seakan-akan telah di letakkan pada urutan kesekian demi para pebisnis media untuk membesarkan usahanya. Idealisme moral sudah tidak menjadi dasar dalam berkreatifitas, mereka hanya ingin mengambil keuntungan sebesar-besarnya.

Timbulnya indikasi-indikasi destruktif tersebut sebaiknya dibutuhkan strategi sebagai kontrol berbagai pihak untuk media. Strategi yang paling utama adalah nilai-nilai moral dan agama yang diajarkan dan ditanamkan di dalam setiap anggota keluarga. Sehingga diharapkan para generasi muda mempunyai dasar yang kuat sebagai filter dalam menilai sebuah tayangan.

Pemerintah seharusnya membuat sistem peraturan perundang-undangan yang lebih jelas dan tegas dalam memberikan sanksi kepada yang melanggar. Peraturan mengenai kepemilikan media, memperjelas kaburnya antara pornografi dan artistic, antara privasi dan hak masyarakat untuk tahu. Badan sensor film pun harus lebih dapat lebih mempertegas bagian-bagian yang memang harus disensor. Adanya kontrol sosial dari masyarakat mungkin dengan membentuk badan independen untuk mengawasi apa yang media tayangkan (Media Watch). Dan dari internal media sendiri adanya pelatihan-pelatihan untuk para jurnalistik dan para kreatif agar dapat lebih kreatif mengemas suatu program atau tulisan sehingga dapat memberikan nilai yang positif kepada masyarakat.

Dan pada akhirnya sinergi antara para praktisi media, pemilik media, masyarakat, dan pemerintah untuk saling mengawasi dan mengontrol antar satu dengan lainnya dapat terwujud.

The Eight Characteristics of Women's Media

The Eight Characteristics of Women's Media that are different in our Media from Men's Media and the Five Categories of Women's News

Reprinted from The Quill Magazine article entitled "Women News"(pp. 36-37)

by Dr. Donna Allen.

At the risk of sounding like a health magazine ad -- seven ways to prevent cancer of the elbow and four reasons why you should brush your teeth at 8 p.m. -- I will answer The QUILL editor's question about the difference between women-owned and men-owned news media by providing eight characteristics of women-owned media and five categories of women's news not reported in the mass media.

One can spot the eight characteristics of women-owned-and-run media by sampling any half dozen of the over 700 women-owned periodicals or other media. We discerned these characteristics at the Women's Institute for Freedom of the Press during our fifteen years of publishing Media Report to Women and the annual Directory of Women's Media.

You will be amazed to discover so many hundreds of periodicals you never heard of, full of information you didn't know you didn't know -- replete with characteristics quite different from what you always thought was journalism. You'll wonder where you have been -- you've been in the land of male-dominant media which, natch, doesn't tell you there is any other kind. Simone de Beauvoir said, "Representation of the world, like the world itself, is the work of men; they describe it from their own point of view, which they confuse with the absolute truth."

Only a few illustrations of each characteristic can be quoted here, but more examples in depth can be found in The Development of Communication Networks Among Women, 1963-1983 by Dr. Martha Leslie Allen (UMI, 1988). Three of the eight characteristics relate to journalistic practice.

1) The conventional journalism of male-owned media reports news in the third person. Women's journalism reports its news in the first person, allowing the newsmakers to speak for themselves. Both claim their styles result in greater accuracy. A few examples: "When we publish material about the experience of members of groups which are targets of discrimination in our society, the author must be a member of the group. We feel that it is important for members of each group to speak for themselves rather than having those who don't share their experience speak for them." (Broomstick, A Bi-monthly National Magazine By, For & About Women Over Forty). "Women worldwide are claiming the space to tell our own stories, define our own issues and agendas, create our own organizations and networks, develop our own approaches to mobilization and political action." (Women in Action).

2) Men tend to define "news" as conflict and violence -- fights (political, economic, physical), murders, suicides, floods, fires, and catastrophes of all kinds. Attacks and name-calling usually guarantee a well-attended press conference and subsequent news coverage. Women-owned media define news differently, as these commonly-stated editorial policies indicate: "Women of Power seeks to generate harmony and interconnection by taking care that our words and images nurture and affirm our wholeness . . . It is therefore our policy . . . to refuse to print works which are racist, classist, homophobic, anti-Semitic, ageist, culturally elitist, or which in any other way further divisions among people . . . " (Women of Power). Our aim is "to make every interview informational rather than adversarial." (Women's Radio at WMFO). "The challenge to all of us, but most particularly those in film and television, is to transform the violent macho role models . . . creating media heroes and heroines who are intelligent instead of belligerent, cooperative rather than combative, nurturant rather than destructive," (Mary Batten in Women in Film newsmagazine).

3) Male-owned media claim a journalistic goal of "objectivity." The journalistic goal of women's media is the "effective use of media as an instrument of change." (Echo on Sauti Ya Siti). "More than a simple conveyor belt of information, it has also served as an agent for change . . ." (Women of Europe).

The next two characteristics relate to structure.

4) Women-owned media are nearly all non-hierarchical. "The newspaper in its very structure will attempt to avoid the pitfalls of masculine-oriented models of hierarchical organizations. We will have no intellectual elite on top with peons on the bottom. We will all share in reading what goes into the paper, we all share in the menial labor." (Second Coming). "We are committed to . . . non-hierarchical relationships, and valuing diversity. There are no editors or review board members; the material for each issue is reviewed, selected and prepared by local Websters (members of the web)." (Cassandra, Radical Feminists Nurses Newsjournal).

5) Women's media would replace the competitiveness of male media's "scoops" and financial rivalry with cooperation. "Aurora could not have put together our insert without the help of our sister publications, Off Our Backs and Up From Under. We encourage you to subscribe to these feminist journals along with Aurora.." (Aurora)

6) Women-owned media tend toward a common carrier concept of journalistic function. "WIN News is a world-wide open communication system by, for and about women of all backgrounds, beliefs, nationalities, and age groups." (Women's International Network News). "Sojourner was founded in 1975 on the principle of offering an open forum for women -- a space where women could speak freely about their concerns as women . . . on any subject, so as to encourage the widest possible diversity in submissions." (Sojourner).

7) The greatest difference from male-owned media is women's characteristic analysis of mass media as hostile to women. "The mass media portrays feminists as sadistic trigger-happy bull dykes . . . This image is intended to turn people off." (Plexus, West Coast Women's Press). "We aim to balance the 'freakish women's libber' coverage (presented by media coverage.)" (News Sheet). "Men are the gatekeepers of power . . . of the dominant ideology . . . The making and shaping of cultures -- the systems of thought, belief, values, attitudes, and the symbols and images by which these are expressed -- are the works of men . . . and serve to legitimize male domination." (Mediterranean Women, KEGME Review).

8) The eighth difference is in content. "Women's newspapers report all the news the male press finds unfit to print; it frames women's issues in a different way than the straight press, it reports what's going on in the women's movement . . ." (Susan Cavin in Womanews, NY). "The Women's Movement isn't dying, you just haven't heard any news coverage of women on television . . . It's just not getting any news coverage." (Womenews, Cleveland). "For 14 years WIN News has been reporting the often disturbing facts about and from women all over the world -- information that has been entirely ignored . . . and is still passed over as irrelevant by the international press." (WIN News).

And what are the five essential categories of essential women's news not reported at all in the mass media?

1) Health and safety information, such as where to go to find shelter from abuse, information on devices or drugs that are dangerous to women, such as DES, Dalkon Shield, psychosurgery; where to find the women who are working on health and safety problems to work with them.

2) Economic information, such as what to do when you experience discrimination; location of child care centers and their costs; income sources such as welfare, pensions, educational opportunities, training, scholarships, loans, and fellowships available to women; how to go into business, and how women have handled special problems that arise.

3) Political information, such as legislation with special effect on women; positions on issues of special concern to women and the record of women in office; information about judgeships, court decisions, cases coming up; information on political injustices to women and where to offer support and assistance; and planned political actions on women's issues such as abortion, world peace, pornography, rape, etc., long enough in advance to permit participation.

4) Global information, such as information about the organizations of Muslim women against discrimination and what women in other countries are doing or can do to help; what the United Nations is planning for future World Conferences of Women and what progress has been made for women in the world since the last one; how many (and which) organizations are working against trafficking in women and the facts they have uncovered; refugee conditions of women and children worldwide.

5) Media information, where can women find out about the hundreds of women's periodicals and other media that report on the above issues, national and international women's news services and how many (and which) mass media subscribe to them or use them; and how women can reach the public with information they feel is needed for more viable and democratic decisions.

These are only a few selections from a list as long as your arm put together at a WIFP conference at the National Press Club more than a decade ago, but which after all these years are little more covered than then . We haven't mentioned women's sports, arts, music, education and much more -- often said not to be covered because "the public is not interested," although we know coverage creates interest, whether it's war news or men's sports.

We have been telling and showing them for two decades, and still today they say, "What's women's news?" Is that sexism? Or what?

At the least, it's bad journalism.

Media Literacy Sells Out

Media Literacy is often considered key in fighting commercial persuasion, but might the cure be worse than the disease?

[ by Carrie McLaren ]

If there is one group of educators you’d expect to oppose the commercialization of schools, it’d be the upstarts behind media literacy. So it came as a surprise (even to her colleagues) when the founder and generally recognized guru of the U.S. media literacy movement, Renee Hobbs, started working for Channel One. An early critic of the advertising industry’s in-school news network, Hobbs later changed her mind and became a paid consultant. She is now overseeing Channel One’s latest venture: a media literacy curriculum.

Another key player in the ML movement–the "nonprofit" Center for Media Literacy–has also signed on as a partner with Channel One.

Like any burgeoning discipline, ML is rife with debates within the field. Everyone appears to agree on one point: understanding media is essential because media affect so much of our reality. But educators who see media and commercialism as separate issues see a different reality than, say, Wally Bowen of Citizens for Media Literacy, based in North Carolina. "There’s a tendency to focus on what’s on screen rather than looking at power relationships," he says. "How is the Channel One contract signed? How do competing messages get silenced? This is media literacy."

Others say such larger debates open up an ideological can of worms and prefer analyzing media without scrutinzing the market that delivers it. This desire to separate media from marketing helps explain educators’ acceptance of corporate curricula–even when they consider commercialism problematic. John Pungente, SJ, of the Jesuit Communications Project in Ontario, for instance, helped lead a grassroots effort to get YNN (Channel One’s Canadian equivalent) out of schools. Nonetheless, Pungente has helped align the Canadian movement with the film and television industries. Pungente has been a vocal supporter of Cable in the Classroom, backed by the national Cable Television Association, which provides "commericial-free" cable television and study guides to schools. One such program, produced by Much Music, Canada’s MTV equivalent, asks questions such as: "What would your parents say if you started dressing like Marilyn Manson? Why?" And: "What musical style does [Crash Test Dummies singer Brad Roberts’s] clothing match?"

Much Music also broaches questions about gender, race, class, and advertising tactics. In fact, ignoring the fluffier portions of Cable’s programming (teachers are, after all, encouraged to pick and choose) begs the question: What if these corporate materials do reveal advertising strategies? What exactly does that accomplish?

Critics of companies like Channel One have assumed that corporations are threatened by media literacy and therefore want to co-opt it. Bob McCannon of the New Mexico Media Literacy Project, one of Renee Hobbs’ fiercest critics, has suggested that media deconstructions like those in his group’s materials–analyzing everything from the addictive behavior in Hackers to subliminal persuasion in Alpha-Bits and Peter Jennings newscasts–rile the powers that be. Yet some of the practices advocated by media literacy teachers are in fact well-worn advertising strategies. Having recognized public skepticism early on, advertisers have over the years used ads (whether in the form of pamphlets, newsreels, or videos) to reveal how images are manipulated, packages designed, and slogans chosen. P. T. Barnum, for example, actively encouraged criticism of his exhibits. He wrote letters to the editor (under a pseudonym) debunking his own attractions. As Barnum would say, if he should swindle a man out of $20, the man would give a quarter to hear him tell about it.

Today, this tactic can be seen in "anti-ads" that critique or mock advertising (Nike, Sprite, Diesel). Such efforts can be seen as attempts to co-opt media literate criticism, but this assumes such criticism is a threat in the first place. From an advertiser’s point of view, media literacy may not even need to be co-opted; it may in fact just make its subject all the more compelling. In the words of historian Daniel Boorstin, "an image . . . becomes all the more interesting with our every effort to debunk it."

Says Jean Lotus of White Dot (a newsletter for TV-free life): "During TV-Turnoff week in 1998, the National Cable Television Association sent out press releases saying that TV-turnoffs weren’t the answer, but ‘critical viewing’ was." Similarly, the Learning Channel and Time Warner Cable (with a curriculum by Renee Hobbs) have sponsored Know TV Week–a not-so-subtle rejoinder to those practicing "no tv." Industry may very well have less to fear from students watching, however critically or intelligently, than tuning out. What better way to counter the maxim that TV makes you stupid?

Of course, to many ML teachers, none of this is a big deal. When push comes to shove, ML is considered important because media is everywhere. But at a time when kids are said to be spending nearly 40 hours a week with (mostly electronic) media in addition to school, wouldn’t the goals of ML be better served by helping provide more of a sense of unmediated reality? Or at least a reality not centered on commerical, mass-media crap? One can learn about African-American stereotypes by analyzing The Cosby Show, but also by interviewing community leaders, tracing geographic patterns, and reading African-American literature. (Keep in mind that while media literacy is considered an integral "bridge to the new millenium," history isn’t; most states lack a history requirement in grade school.)

Concentrating on the overwhelming impact of mass media can actually extend its power. With such an emphasis, media literacy undermines the alternatives that do exist. A girl inspired by Acme Novelty Library comics, Herman Melville, or her marine biology club has a perspective on Dawson’s Creek that your 16-year-old media savant lacks. Which isn’t to imply that deconstructing Budweiser commercials or criticizing TV news can’t be valuable lessons in a proper context. It is simply to say that if one hopes to engage students with the real world, taking apart the ABCs & NBCs isn’t going to work without something other than cable channels and cola ads to take their place.

Introducing the Technophobia/Technophilia Debate (Beatriz Santana)

Manuel Castells in his book, "The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture - The Rise of the Network Society", points to a dialectical interaction between technology and society: "Technology does not determine society: it embodies it. But neither does society determine technological innovation: it uses it"

According to Castells (1996), the present phase of capitalism has become possible because of developments in information technology. The introduction of innovations in the area of microelectronics, telecommunications, digital electronics, and network computing represent the rise of a new technological paradigm which becomes the basis of socio-economic relations. These new technologies effect pervasively all levels of production in different sectors as well as the whole of society.

This paradigm shift requires new practices in production. A new kind of worker and a new style of management is needed in order to adjust production to the dynamism imposed by information technologies. Castells comments on the dynamic characteristic of the new global society caused by the introduction of information technology:

"The emergence of a new technological paradigm organized around new, more powerful, and more flexible information technologies makes it possible for information itself to become the product of the production process. To be more precise: the products of new information technology industries are information processing devices or information processing itself. New information technologies, by transforming the processes of information processing, act upon all domains of human activity, and make it possible to establish endless connections between different domains, as well as between elements and agents of such activities. A networked, deeply interdependent economy emerges that becomes increasingly able to apply its progress in technology, knowledge, and management to technology, knowledge, and management themselves. Such a virtuous circle should lead to greater productivity and efficiency, given the right conditions of equally dramatic organizational and institutional changes" (Castells 1996, p. 67).

Thus, this new era not only places knowledge at the forefront of economic competitiveness, but also calls for a whole new model of production and management. The possibility of an incredibly dynamic diffusion of new goods and fast delivery of services has reshaped production. Industries compete over quality and product differentiation. It is no longer the era of manufacturing, but of information-processing. Management has focused on user needs, prompting efforts to produce different models in order to match a great diversity of customer tastes. It is no longer the time of standardized goods, generated under a mass production model (Fordism). Instead, the "Information Economy" points to a flexible, customized model of production, introduced by the "just in time" practice of Japanese companies (Toyotism). Another feature of this new era is the shift from vertically- integrated large-scale to vertical disintegration and horizontal networks between units in production (Harvey, 1994).

This new information economy asks for a new kind of worker, one that is more creative, participatory, and capable of making suggestions and reflecting over his or her daily duties. Features like these seem to be what is called "flexible labor", within both mature and high tech sectors. Economies also require a new style of managing and a "new manager". In addition to being able to take decisions in a more dynamic context, this manager has to learn how to deal with "new workers". Thus, a new relationship between management and shop-floor has to be constructed. The flow of ideas has now a different pattern. The "thinking" does not take place exclusively on a top-down basis. Feed-back from the creative and participatory worker has to be incorporated and considered by management. Learning is undertaken in all levels and sectors of the production system. Cooperation, rather than competition, is the key in this new environment. In this context, the acquisition of special skills is a central element determining socio-economic development. Education is, in a sense, placed in a key position.

Schools are asked to prepare students to perform in this new environment which has been highly affected by new advances in information technologies. Computers are devices present in almost all day to day activities. The dynamism of the present phase of capitalism requires computer literacy.

Having examined this broad picture characterized by a reshaping of socio, economic and cultural relationships, the questions I would address are: how should education deal with the "information age's" requirements for creativity, critical skills and participatory capacity? Can computers help the development of these special skills? More specifically, I would like to focus on the debate which polarizes positions regarding the use of computers in educational practices.

Studies dealing with the relationship between technology and society tend to fall into two extreme positions: technophilia or technophobia. The latter sees technology as an evil element which is taking society to a process of dehumanization, not recognizing any benefit that it might bring to human life. The former takes the opposite position, placing on technological advances the solution and the means to improve performance in different kinds of activities.

This paper will discuss both positions. I will concentrate on the use of computers and network systems i.e., Internet, and how the two positions -technophilia and technophobia - see the relationship between technology and society, with special focus on education. Bill Gates' book, "The Road Ahead", will represent the optimistic view of the use of technological developments. In contrast, Clifford Stoll with his "Silicon Snake Oil - Second thoughts on the Information Highway" will bring the other extreme position in which technology is presented as an instrument of disconnection which isolates humans from reality.

Bill Gates and "The Road Ahead" - a Technophilic View

In his book - "The Road Ahead" - Gates stresses that we are living on a revolutionary moment in which information technologies function as the new tools of socio economic and cultural activities. Throughout the book he tends to glorify the role of computers, software and network links in the development of different daily tasks. Despite his position, clearly favoring the use of information technologies, Gates comments that these technologies should be seen as tools for the improvement of quality life, not as substitutes of human activities. He emphasizes the improvement of "quality of life." Machines would offer a more convenient way of life, being present in people's life under people's control.

"Over time, the new machine finds a place in our everyday lives because it not only offers convenience and saves labor, but it can also inspire us to new creative heights. It assumes a trusted place beside our other tools. A new generation grows up with it, changing and humanizing it - playing with it" (Gates 1995).

Gates believed that the PC would be this new machine. He describes his journey as head of Microsoft, and the way he and Paul Allen established the company. They envisioned a great market expansion. Allen and Gates could see that computers would become "personal tools". This transformation of computers being owned by each person implied individuality, interaction, and extension. Gates and Allen started to turn into reality what McLuhan already had foreseen in 1964: computers as extension of people, as the protagonist of the new phase after the Industrial Revolution.

Gates focus on PC's pointed to the niche which would make of him an important entrepreneur: software. Software is the artifact that gives language to the machine. The interaction between men/women and machine is mediated by the software. To develop a software you need more human reasoning than capital. Software is a deposit of human systematization of different kinds of reasoning to function as a tool to support the user's further reasoning.

Thus, Gates realized that his chances to launch his enterprise were in the high skills required by the software niche. In different parts of "The Road Ahead", he points out the importance of having "smart people" working with him. In reality, most of his competitiveness has been based on the performance of labor, in this case, highly skilled labor. This might be the reason why he puts so much emphasis on the improving quality of education, through the use of technology. Gates clearly sees the role of education in the present context of the Information age. He recognizes the need for a life-time learning. As it was mentioned before, the issue now is "learn how to learn".

" ... one of the things I like best about my job is that I'm surrounded by other people who love to learn. In a technology business everybody has to acquire knowledge at a prodigious rate. At Microsoft we read, ask questions, explore, go to lectures, compare our notes and findings with each other, consult experts, daydream, brainstorm, formulate and test hypotheses, build models and simulations, communicate what we're learning, and practice new skills" (Gates 1995, p.209).

Gates can be seen as the entrepreneur of the Information Age. His key characteristic is his worry for a constant innovative path. Now, his vision for the future is linked to the establishment of the information highway. In this sense, Gates is the advocate of computer technology, putting it at the center of present and future socio, economic and cultural activities. Again, he argues that computers are tools to improve human life, subordinated to man's and woman's will.

As mentioned previously, the new scenery of global economy asks of education to focus on critical thinking and quality. Can computers help? Gates believes that computers can dramatically enhance the educational process. When he describes Microsoft's favorable environment for learning, he argues that this is possible only because the company combines learning with the use of the "right tools" . Gates would like to see schools doing the same.

"At Microsoft these learning activities get a boost from the latest computing and communications technologies. Microsoft succeeds because its employees learn efficiently, in part by using information tools" (Gates 1995, p. 209).

Being a businessman who, of course, has a strong belief in the market, Gates sees education as another "business" activity: "the business of learning, of facilitating the right learning". As he states in the title of chapter nine: "Education: the best investment". Before I get into Gate's ideas for education, I must say that it is difficult to not get suspicious of his arguments since his company will be the first to benefit from the use of the technological tool in education. However, on the other hand, I must also recognize that most of his ideas for education are pointing to the desirability of incorporating new tools to aid in the learning process. This is a position that I would like to argue for. Nevertheless, I would have to stress that the use of technological devices has to take place in a complementary way, acting as a suplement for the teacher and the texts. I would argue that the introduction of computer in the classroom has to be implemented together with a serious critical analysis of the possible negative externalities in order to enhance a better educational environment.

Gates holds an extremely optimistic and uncritical opinion of the use of computers in education. In his view , information technology will empower people, if used as a new tool to overcome difficulties in learning and supporting the thinking process. He mentions that in surveys, "education" and "working at home" are the two main reasons indicated by parents for acquiring a computer. He stresses the concern with the necessity of building up skills to operate in today's professional environment. In this sense, parents expose their children to what they believe will later help them get a better job. To be familiarized with the use of computers is an important skill to achieve a more successful professional career.

Gates also explores the use of computers in the classrooms. He discusses a list of benefits technology can bring to daily life in schools. Teachers will be able to take advantage of different kinds of information available in the Internet and exchange ideas using these with students. He also argues that technology will be able to humanize rather than dehumanize activities in schools. Gates argues that kids will be able to get together around the machine, exchange ideas on how to operate it and on how to develop tasks. In addition to the aforementioned, he points to the innumerable opportunities that network links will bring, i.e., connecting students from different schools, enlarging the chances of socialization as well as of learning from other cultures. Computers would also stimulate learning outside classrooms. Students could explore the web or CD-ROMs to learn at home.

Gates points to differences in learning. According to him, because not everyone learns in the same way, PCs will give a diverse range of choices for an individual to carry out his/her learning activity. In this context, education required by this information age will be based on differentiation, and on the respect to diversified tastes. Thus, mass education will have little space in this context. Software would be designed to attend special requests and interests. "The Road Ahead" also discusses the possibilities of "distant learning" and the way it can help to make a more democratic access to good information. Through video conference more people would be able to listen to a good teacher and a good lecture, resulting in economic and educational quality and efficiency.

Gates points the Internet as an incredible device for teachers to improve their curriculum material through the exchange of ideas with other educators. He also stresses that good teachers are central for education, making a very strong point that they will not be substituted by technology. However, his optimism tends to obscure some important questions, such as the issue of access. Although he spends some time discussing the future expansion of the infrastructure for the network computing, as well as the involvement of business companies in equipping classrooms, Gates clearly takes the position of the extreme optimism. The question he does not exam seriously is: if we accept that technology will deliver all the benefits pointed in "The Road Ahead", will these benefits be felt by different communities located in the inner cities or in developing countries? Who will benefit from Gate's "information revolution" and what are its downsides?

Clifford Stoll and "The Silicon Snake Oil" - a Technophobic View

Stoll's analysis of the relationship between technology and society falls into an extreme pessimistic view. I would say that in the attempt to reinforce his obstinate ideas against the use of computers and other electronic devices, Stoll ends up presenting a weak argument filled with many one-sided examples. Stoll does not see any benefit coming from the incorporating of information technology into people's home or professional activities. Discussing computers, Stoll stresses the danger of being carried away from reality, spending valuable time relating to a machine instead of socializing directly with people. In other words, he argues for the need of real experiences, in order to enjoy and give more value to life. In this sense, Stoll condemns the new option for some professionals to work at home, arguing that this isolates them "turning their homes into a prison" (Stoll 1995, p. 31).

I would like to comment on his insensibility for special cases in which working at home might be the only way some people can carry out a professional experience. A good example would be women who might be able to raise their children, supervise other home tasks and carry professional activities at the same time. Also physical disabilities might prevent some people from travelling daily to the workplace. Working at home with the use of computers might also be a way to bring disable people to the market place. In addition to developing a professional career, people with difficulties to transport from one place to the other can easily acquire goods and services from the Internet. Thus, computers have also improved the access of disable to shopping.

Stoll also argues that computers not only prevent people from establishing real relationships, they can destroy social relations that have been already established. He gives an example of a couple that breaks up after the husband starts to spend too much time connected to the network instead of experiencing life together with his wife. This is one of the many questionable and one-sided examples Stoll uses to illustrate his point. I must comment that I personally know a couple that first met on the Internet. Because neither Stoll nor I have any further knowledge about other cases, our conclusions on the effects that computers will have in couples will be based solely in personal beliefs.

Throughout the book, he calls in effect for a return to the past. Stoll positively focuses on the "simple" habits of life before "computers".

Another point he raises relates to the fact that people waste a lot of time trying to connect to the Internet and accessing the information they want. Stoll also mentions the time spent trying to solve a problem when computers do not work properly.

Other points presented by Stoll raise issues such as not being able to lay down with a laptop as one would be with a book (Stoll 1995, p. 41), or computers generating too much paper work (p. 30). He also stresses that the use of computers, specially the Internet, has a strong status connotation. His comments on e-mail are:

" ... electronic mail is said to give cheap, immediate communications, at once leveling barriers and reaching straight to the desk of the recipient. You don't risk missing a message because of a busy signal or a slow post office. Yet I find e-mail to be often undependable and annoying to access; it's usually impersonal and boring. A handwritten letter is arguably cheaper, more reliable, and far more expressive. In some instances, it can even be faster" (Stoll 1995, p. 17).

Again, I would insist that he tends to exaggerate in such an extent that his arguments lose validity.

"Today, some kitchens have serious computing power: you can get microprocessor-controlled coffee brewers, microwave ovens, and bread makers. These work perfectly, yet you lose the ritual, the sense of accomplishment, the feeling of being part of the process" (Stoll 1995, p. 29).

What about choice? Don't we have the right to choose between cooking by using traditional practices or taking advantage of modern appliances which might, on the other hand, allow for extra time in professional, educational or even entertaining activities?

When Stoll refers to education, he does not see any benefit of the use of technology to help learning. He criticizes the idea of technology as a tool. Stoll understands technology as an evil device which brings with it inevitable bad consequences. He does not believe in computers helping literacy and argues that all information available in the Internet is bad and mediocre. Stoll also comments that learning is not only about information, it is about experience which technology cannot substitute. Databases can only give simple answers without stimulating future inquiry, and future learning. In this sense, he does not examine the impact of devices such as CD-ROM and other software that are not only about information, but stimulate thought and activities. He could question the quality of the educational practices presented in these devices, instead, he just ignores them.

Throughout, Stoll claims the need of direct contact. Teachers have to be the central actors and source of teaching. In addition, he discusses the condition of classrooms in American schools and the problems of equipping them with computers. First, Stoll remembers that computers are expensive and the access to them might not be easily achievable. Second, they become quickly obsolete, which would require that schools have a constant cash flow to replace old computers and software. Third, computers would raise the interest of thieves once the have "street value".

Moral values are also a focus of Stoll's discussion. According to him, the Internet is turning issues normally submitted to censorship under regular broadcasting, available for access to children. In this context, parents would not be able to control what their children would be accessing.

Although this is true, this danger is not exclusive to the Internet. As many other issues, this one also should be dealt with constant parental orientation. When the net did not exist, the focus was on "undesirable" books and magazines. Parents never had and still do not have total control over these either. Maybe the nature of the web, with instant connection calls for another kind of parental intervention. However, the situation does not undermine the benefits of the Internet for youth education and entertainment of the youth.

As commented before, Stoll is a good example of an extremist technophobic. Here is another of his conclusions about the destiny of schools if technology "invades" classrooms:

"Suppose that I accept that students should spend a lot of time behind computers. What's the limit? If computers, online networks, and interactive video are so important to modern classrooms, why not eliminate the classroom entirely? Students of all levels could sit behind their computers at home, and receive quality instruction from the finest teachers. Electronic correspondence courses." (Stoll 1995, p.124)

Would a classroom with good a teacher, good infrastructure, good curriculum, as well as technological advances create a desirable environment? Do we necessarily have to fall into a situation of "either-or", instead of one with an inclusive position?

Concluding Remarks

This paper examined the two antagonic positions regarding the relationship between technology and society: technophilia and technophobia.

The first section discussed the global context that has been shaped through the development of new technologies. Knowledge has appeared as a key issue in the "Information society". There is a need for skilled workers and managers prepared to deal with the dynamism imposed by the pervasive use of information technologies in the line of production as well as in the service sector.

In this context, the issue of what kind of education should be offered to prepare the new worker and the new manager turns to be a central one. My interest was to discuss the role of technology in the agenda for education. Bill Gates represented the optimistic and uncritical view of technological determinism. According to him, education as well as other activities will improve considerably through the use of technology. Despite ignoring some important aspects, such as the issue of accessibility, Gates presents relevant arguments for the use of technological advances in our daily life. It is a book written by an entrepreneur making an apology for his business. Still the ideas are good enough to convince the reader and make him/her forget that his profit is behind his rhetoric.

On the other hand, Stoll's "Silicon Snake Oil" fails to make a better use of a critical view of technology. His rhetorical and intimate style, together with his unconvincing examples do not present the opposite arguments to Gates's view in a competent way. However, it serves to provoke critical thoughts about computers as tools in the "Information Age."In this dualistic analysis, I believe that a middle range position has to be taken by educators. Like any new device, computers bring controversies and at the same time open doors for new possibilities.

Regarding the issue of access, I would say that neither Gates nor Stoll address the implications of technology for those who cannot afford to make use of it. Based on the argument that technology instead of helping the performance of the less favored populations, will make the gap between the "have" and the "have nots" even larger, some of the technophobics do not recognize that reality is irreversible. Technologies are already central to the "Information Age", therefore, ignoring them is like choosing to be isolated from the rest of the global scenery. I don't believe turning our backs to technological advances is the best option to deal with issues of poverty. Instead. I would say that intellectuals in poor areas of the world will have a great role to play not only as the facilitators for a critical use of the novelties, but also as channels through which technological advances might be able to reach less favored people.

Information technologies constitute a new kind of media. Their message is dynamic and operates in different languages: written, visual and audio. Like the previous media, certain time is needed to consolidate people's relationships to them. I believe there is a need of a time for "gestation" until information technologies will fully become human's extension (following a McLuhan's idea of media as human's extension).

Resistance is a common feature when a new "tool" is introduced. Stoll represents the extreme position of this resistance. He is still totally trapped into the "alphabetical text" paradigm, and to the rationality of the written world. In this sense, he does not recognize learning outside of books. By doing so, he is excluding the different abilities to learn, for instance, one that requires a visual or audio support. Castells (1996) comments on the different value given to different expressions:

" ... the new alphabetic order, while allowing rational discourse, separated written communication form the audiovisual system of symbols and perceptions, so critical for the full-fledged expression of the human mind. By implicitly and explicitly establishing a social hierarchy between literate culture and audiovisual expression, the price paid for the foundation of human practice in the written discourse was to relegate the world of sounds and images to the backstage of the arts, dealing with the private domain of emotions and with the public world of liturgy" (Castell 1996, p. 327/328).

Information technologies give voice to text and "looks" to meaning. Does that preclude abstraction and possibilities of reasoning? Not necessarily. I believe issues of quality and efficiency will depend on the extent we will be able to critically examine the use of technologies. Educational practices don't need to choose being for or against technology. Rather they will have to learn how to benefit from it, making a clear and critical analysis of what it takes to make them useful tools, and how to best use information technology to enhance the educational process and democratization.

References

Castells, M., The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture - The Rise of the Network Society (volume I), Blackwell, Massachusetts, 1996.

Gates, B., The Road Ahead, Penguin Books, New York, 1995.

McLuhan, M., Understanding Media - The Extension of Man, MIT Press, Massachusetts, 1964.

Stoll, C., Silicon Snake Oil: Second Thoughts on the Information Highway, Anchor Books, New York, 1995.

Membangun Masyarakat Melek Media

Media massa pada suatu waktu merupakan keajaiban yang beruntun dari teknologi komunikasi. Pada suatu era, masyarakat pernah menjadi budak informasi yang terkomodifikasi dalam bentuk bongkahan-bongkahan informasi yang terpecah-pecah. Pada suatu era, masyarakat menunjukkan kekuatan dirinya untuk mempunyai kemampuan saring yang luar biasa. Pada suatu era, masyarakat menuntut tanggung jawab sosial dari media massa.

Kekuatan media massa terletak pada maksimalisasi penguatan komponen-komponen penting dalam proses komunikasi massa.
Pertama, kepercayaan pada komunikator ditentukan oleh kemampuannya untuk bisa dipercaya (masalah ethos komunikasi). Dalam konteks media modern, kepercayaan pada komunikator juga dibuktikan untuk membungkus isi pesan komunikasi massa sedemikian rupa bisa memanipulasi kepercayaan khalayak.
Kedua, daya tarik komunikator. Daya tarik komunikator meletakkan posisi kesamaan makna sebagai point utama. Source of attractiveness merupakan suatu proses dan mekanisme pola kesamaan antara harapan dan kenyataan yang menentukan kepuasan proses komunikasi.
Ketiga, pesan komunikasi massa. Setiap pesan dikelola berdasarkan media yang membungkusnya. Dalam kaitan ini, proses estetika penting dalam proses pembungkusan isi media. Tanpa pengelolaan yang baik dalam dimensi isi pesan, tidak mungkin ada media yang rapi dan jelas dalam menyampaikan pesan.
Keempat, dimensi media massa. Media massa modern mempunayi ciri dan mempunyai kemampuan untuk memikat perhatian khalayak secara serempak dan serentak.
Kelima, khalayak. Khalayak yang dituju oleh komunikasi massa adalah khalayak massa dan bersifat anonim.
Keenam, filter dan regulasi dalam komunikasi massa. Filter utama dalam proses komunikasi massa adalah budaya, psikologi dan dimensi fisik. Regulator tetap menjadi hal yang penting untuk menjamin kebebasan dalam memproduksi, mengkonsumsi dan mendistribusikan pesan komunikasi massa.

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