Thursday, April 03, 2008

Daulat Publik di Abad Informasi

Oleh: Santi Indra Astuti
(Dimuat di harian Pikiran Rakyat, 27 Desember 2007)


Sejak 1927, majalah TIME memilih tokoh-tokoh paling berpengaruh di dunia. Man of the Year, atau Person of the Year. Yang pernah terpilih adalah nama-nama besar seperti Martin Luther King, Jr. (1964), Ayatollah Khomeini (1979) sampai Bono, Bill dan Melinda Gates (2005).

Tapi, tahun 2006, dalam edisi yang semestinya menampilkan Person of the Year, TIME tidak memasang foto siapapun. Pada sampulnya, hanya terpajang foto seperangkat komputer putih, dengan kata YOU tertulis di monitornya.

YOU. Anda. Itulah Person of the Year 2007. Bukan presiden, bukan aktivis, bukan artis. Bukan siapapun. Tokoh penting alias tokoh kunci tahun 2007 adalah kita semua.

Publik, khalayak, rakyat, komunitas, masyarakat, orang-orang kebanyakan. Sejak kapan orang biasa (ordinary people) menjadi orang penting (important people)? Jawabannya, sejak tumbuhnya kesadaran bahwa publik bukan lagi khalayak yang bodoh, kosong, dan mengambang.

Publik adalah kekuatan, atau wujud kuasa itu sendiri. Publik adalah khalayak yang (semestinya) berdaya.

Banjir Informasi, Kejenuhan Informasi

Dalam konteks Masyarakat Informasi, tahun ini memang harus dimaknai sebagai tahun khalayak.

Inilah tahun milik publik. Saat dimana kedaulatan informasi mestinya dikembalikan pada publik. Mengapa publik, atau khalayak, yang menjadi kunci Masyarakat Informasi? Mengapa bukannya pemimpin-pemimpin politik, atau para penguasa teknologi? Nah, mari kita tengok sejenak ‘sejarah’ Masyarakat Informasi.

Istilah ini ramai didengungkan pada tahun 80-an, ketika para futurolog seperti Alvin Toeffler, John C. Naisbitt, sampai Francis Fukuyama, meramalkan transformasi Masyarakat Industri menjadi Masyarakat Informasi.

Masyarakat Informasi, mengutip definisi Melody (1990) dalam McQuail (1992), adalah masyarakat yang bergantung pada jejaring informasi dan komunikasi elektronik, serta mengalokasikan sebagian besar sumberdayanya bagi aktivitas-aktivitas informasi dan komunikasi.

Masyarakat Informasi adalah masyarakat berbasis data digital. Artinya, perikehidupannya dioperasikan lewat pertukaran data digital.

Janji Masyarakat Informasi adalah membebaskan umat manusia dari kesengsaraan, lewat peningkatan kesejahteraan dan demokratisasi yang dicapai berkat pemanfaatan teknologi informasi.

Pertukaran informasi secara bebas diyakini sebagai kunci kemajuan. Tak heran jika seluruh dunia berupaya mengejar ketertinggalan teknologi lewat proyek-proyek digitalisasi seperti e-government, e-learning, e-banking, segala macam e-revolution. Media massa berkonvergensi, membuka pelbagai saluran informasi, dan membombardir khalayak dengan (sensasi) informasi berlimpah-ruah.

Sayangnya, limpahan informasi tak kunjung mencerdaskan khalayak. Konvergensi media memang membuka pasar industri yang ramai.

Tapi keuntungannya lebih banyak dinikmati oleh para pelaku pasar.

Maraknya media massa tidak dibarengi dengan isi yang mendidik. Kunci-kunci akses teknologi tetap dipegang oleh penguasa-penguasa teknologi, yang berkolaborasi dengan aktor-aktor politik dan ekonomi pasar. Lantas, bagaimana mungkin kita bisa bicara soal demokratisasi, kesetaraan, dan pemerataan kesejahteraan?

Maka, pada era ini, kita dipusingkan oleh banjir informasi, perdebatan berlarut seputar hak penguasaan frekuensi, perebutan ranah publik, komodifikasi khalayak, sentralisasi dan censorship, information security, serta penciptaan pasar yang dikendalikan oleh instrumen-instrumen seperti rating.

Sementara, khalayak ditinggalkan sendirian, dibiarkan terseret-seret banjir informasi hingga mencapai titik kejenuhan informasi—information saturated.

Publik, dalam situasi seperti ini, hanya diposisikan sebagai khalayak pasif. Publik tak lebih dari konsumen, yang habis-habisan dieksploitasi oleh pasar media mau pun bisnis informasi.

Melek Informasi

Ilustrasi tadi memberi kita pelajaran berharga. Masyarakat Informasi mustahil terwujud andai tidak dibarengi dengan pembekalan information literacy (melek informasi) kepada publik.

Informasi yang melimpah sesungguhnya bisa menjadi sumberdaya yang bermanfaat, andai publik cukup melek informasi.

Melek informasi, berarti bisa mengakses sumber-sumber informasi, bisa menyeleksi informasi sesuai kebutuhannya, bisa menganalisis informasi secara kritis, dan bisa mengelola informasi.

Tanpa bekal melek informasi, publik hanya menjadi bulan-bulanan pasar dan penguasa teknologi informasi.

Information literacy dapat dijabarkan setidaknya dalam dua aspek: literacy of Information Technology (IT literacy) dan media literacy.

Mengapa IT literacy penting? Tidak ada gunanya melakukan percepatan teknologi atau menyelenggarakan proyek digitalisasi yang mahal, ketika khalayak tidak tahu mau dibawa kemana dengan teknologi tersebut.

Mengapa media literacy itu penting? Tidak ada gunanya membuka saluran media massa, dan membombardir khalayak dengan media, ketika ujung-ujungnya publik hanya disuguhi program atau content yang tidak mencerdaskan.

Maaf-maaf saja, proyek e-government, e-learning, e-banking, dan lain-lain, akhirnya tak lebih dari otomatisasi perkantoran saja, yang keuntungannya dinikmati oleh makelar proyek dan distributor perangkat elektronik.

Sementara, hasil akhirnya sendiri hanya bisa dinikmati oleh segelintir orang.

Sejumlah langkah kini harus dilakukan untuk memberdayakan khalayak agar melek informasi.

Pertama, strategi decentring atau pemecahan konsentrasi kekuasaan pada simpul-simpul yang lebih kecil. Dalam konteks Masyarakat Informasi, decentring harus diterjemahkan sebagai pemecahan konsentrasi penguasaan teknologi informasi, yang saat ini hanya terpusat pada lokus-lokus tertentu.

Peran pemerintah dalam hal diperlukan sebagai regulator atau fasilitator yang bijak dan berpihak pada publik, tidak egois menghamba pada kepentingan ideologis atau kepentingan pasar.

Peran lembaga-lembaga swadaya masyarakat juga diperlukan, sebagai jembatan penghubung antara pusat-pusat kekuasaan dengan publik.

Adalah suatu indikasi yang baik, jika pemerintah via Depkominfo kini bisa duduk bersama dengan Komisi Penyiaran Indonesia (KPI), guna mendiskusikan langkah-langkah menjadikan frekuensi sebagai ranah publik.

Sesungguhnya, ini merupakan upaya decentring untuk memecah konsentrasi penguasaan ranah penyiaran, yang tadinya hanya berada di tangan pemerintah.

Proyek Koran Masuk Desa, pengadaan Internet bagi wilayah pedesaan, atau pendirian pusat-pusat informasi masyarakat di tingkat RW juga bisa dibaca sebagai strategi decentring.

Tujuannya tidak lain menjadikan teknologi informasi dan pertukaran informasi tak cuma terfokus di kota-kota besar.

Namun, bisa dinikmati hingga ke sentra-sentra masyarakat terkecil. Decentring tidak sekadar membuka akses, tapi juga membuka ruang-ruang partisipatori.

Informasi yang lazimnya bersifat top down (dari pusat ke pinggiran) kini bisa diseimbangkan dengan alur bottom-up (dari bawah ke atas).

Tapi, decentring saja tidak cukup. Strategi kedua yang harus dilakukan adalah memberdayakan publik lewat pendidikan melek media dan melek informasi.

Menempatkan komputer di desa-desa, mengembangkan jaringan internet sampai tingkat RW, tapi tidak dibarengi dengan pendidikan, pelatihan, dan pendampingan mengenai cara memanfaatkannya, sungguh-sungguh merupakan tindakan yang tidak bertanggungjawab.

Berapa banyak komputer dan perangkat instalasi Internet yang teronggok tanpa guna di rumah-rumah pemuka desa, atau ketua-ketua RW, gara-gara masyarakat tidak tahu cara menggunakannya? Perlu dilakukan pendataan menyangkut komunitas mana yang memang memerlukannya.

Bila komunitas belum membutuhkan teknologi komputer dan Internet, serta tidak punya daya dukung, semisal listrik yang memadai, tentu tidak perlu dipaksakan.

Mereka bisa diberdayakan melalui perangkat informasi lain. Itu pun kalau informasi memang diyakini sebagai kunci kemajuan masyarakat.

Mengembangkan radio komunitas, mendirikan perpustakaan gratis, atau memberdayakan majelis taklim sebagai pusat pertukaran informasi masyarakat, misalnya, bisa menjadi upaya alternatif untuk membuat masyarakat melek informasi dan melek media.

Dalam konteks media literacy dan information literacy, hal-ihwal apa yang mesti ditransfer pada publik? Pertama-tama adalah pengenalan mengenai jenis-jenis informasi dan media informasi.

Selanjutnya, mendampingi publik agar bisa memproduksi sendiri informasi yang dibutuhkan. Dengan cara ini, publik tidak sekadar mampu menyeleksi informasi sesuai dengan kebutuhannya, tetapi juga bisa memelihara content dan mengelola medianya sendiri.

Inilah sesungguhnya esensi demokratisasi informasi—publik yang berdaya menjadi produsen, sekaligus konsumen informasi!

Strategi ketiga adalah mengembangkan jejaring advokasi media dan informasi. Jejaring ini penting untuk menguatkan publik, menjamin akses agar senantiasa terbuka ke segala pihak, termasuk melakukan kontrol bersama untuk menjaga agar wahana informasi dan komunikasi tidak lagi dikuasai secara sepihak—oleh siapapun.

Stakeholder yang bisa dilibatkan meliputi kalangan pendidik dan akademisi, praktisi atau profesional-profesional media, teknokrat dan industrialis, publik pada umumnya, biro-biro pemerintah, lembaga legislatif, organisasi non pemerintah atau lembaga-lembaga swadaya masyarakat.

Ringkasnya, siapapun yang memiliki concern pada isu pemberdayaan publik, media literacy, information literacy, dan IT literacy.

Dari aspek teknologi, semua ini dimungkinkan berkat berkembangnya teknologi open source, personal-based-technology, dan user-friendly-gadget.

Tapi, yang tak kalah penting, hendaknya seluruh strategi pemberdayaan publik dilakukan seiring sejalan. Bukan jamannya lagi menjalankan kebijakan parsial, atau setengah-setengah, karena hanya akan menguntungkan pihak-pihak tertentu (dan biasanya bukan publik!).

Pada dasarnya, yang mesti dilakukan adalah pekerjaan mahabesar, yaitu menegakkan atau merekonstruksi kedaulatan publik di ranah informasi.

Nah, kembali pada YOU yang dinobatkan sebagai Person of The Year 2006. Mau tahu apa alasan TIME menempatkan Anda semua, kita, sebagai sosok berpengaruh tahun 2006? TIME menulis, “YOU control the Information Age”.

Pada kitalah, terletak kendali atas Abad Informasi. Maka, sangat beralasan untuk menjadikan daulat informasi di tangan publik sebagai isu Abad Informasi di tahun-tahun mendatang.

Wednesday, February 13, 2008

Wajah Buram Sinetron Remaja

Yayasan Pengembangan Media Anak (YPMA-Kidia) dan Universitas Paramadina mengundang Bapak/Ibu untuk hadir dalam seminar sosialisasi hasil penelitian bersama 18 Perguruan Tinggi, mengenai ‘Potret Sinetron Remaja Indonesia’.

Banyak temuan menarik diperoleh dari hasil penelitian tersebut, dan untuk mengetahui lebih jauh, kami mengundang Bapak/Ibu/Saudara untuk hadir dalam acara seminar yang akan diadakan pada:

Hari/Tanggal : Rabu, 20 Februari 2008
Pukul : 09:00 – 12:00
Tempat : Auditorium Universitas Paramadina
Jl. Gatot Subroto Kav. 96-97 Mampang Jakarta Selatan
Tema : “Wajah Buram Sinetron Remaja”
Pembicara : Nina M. Armando, M.Si., Universitas Indonesia / YPMA
Santi Indra Astuti, M.Si., UNISBA Bandung
Slamet Rahardjo, aktor dan sutradara.


Konfirmasi dan informasi: (021) 79181188 ext 221, Juni Alfiah C.

Wednesday, October 24, 2007

Delapan Tips Mengontrol Anak Menghadapi Media Kekerasan

  1. Siapkan set aturan main mana yang pantas dan mana yang tidak pantas ditonton dalam keluarga anak. Terapkan aturan main tersebut pada semua media: TV, kartun, video, film, video game, majalah dan komik
  2. Bantulah anak anda untuk memilih program acara media yang sesuai dengan aturan main yang disepakati dalam keluarga. Carilah program positif sekaligus mengurangi program yang negatif.
  3. Berhati-hatilah manakala anak menonton di luar rumah. Komunikasikan standar anda kepada para tetangga, kakek-nenek mereka, baby sitter atau orang lain yang mempunyai perhatian kepada anak anda. Mintalah kerjasama positif kepada mereka.
  4. Jadikan diri anda sebagai teladan yang baik dalam memilih tayangan program media.
  5. Menonton bersama anak secara periodik memang berguna, bantulah mereka memaknai tayangan yang sedang mereka tonton. Berbagilah pengalaman dengan anak-anak mengenai apa yang boleh dan yang tidak mereka lihat atau dengar dari tayangan media massa.
  6. Jika memungkinkan gunakanlah video rekaman pada tayangan yang memang harus dilihat sendiri oleh anak-anak anda.
  7. Dukunglah kegiatan atau aktivitas anak-anak selain menontong TV atau video atau video game.
  8. Bicarakanlah tentang peran dan fungsi media dengan orang tua lainnya, berbagilah tips dan tantanglah orang tua yang skeptis mengenai kritisisme media.


Monday, October 22, 2007

Children And Media Violence

Children And Media Violence

  • By the time a child is eighteen years old, he or she will witness on television (with average viewing time) 200,000 acts of violence including 40,000 murders (Huston, et al, 1992).
  • Children, ages 8 to 18, spend more time (44.5 hours per week- 61/2 hours daily) in front of computer, television, and game screens than any other activity in their lives except sleeping (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2005).
  • Since the 1950s, more than 1,000 studies have been done on the effects of violence in television and movies. The majority of these studies conclude that: children who watch significant amounts of television and movie violence are more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior, attitudes and values (Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 1999).
  • Media violence affects children's behavior states the American Medical Association, American Academy of Pediatrics, American Psychological Association, American Academy of Family Physicians, and American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (Congressional Public Health Summit, 2000).
  • Children are affected at any age, but young children are most vulnerable to the effects of media violence (Bushman, 2001). Young children
    • are more easily impressionable.
    • have a harder time distinguishing between fantasy and reality.
    • cannot easily discern motives for violence.
    • learn by observing and imitating.
  • Young children who see media violence have a greater chance of exhibiting violent and aggressive behavior later in life, than children who have not seen violent media (Congressional Public Health Summit, 2000).
  • Violent video games can cause people to have more aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors; and decrease empathetic, helpful behaviors with peers (Anderson, 2004; Gentile, 2003).
  • Children who watch more TV and play more video games are not only exposed to more media violence, but are more likely to act more aggressively with peers and tend to assume the worst in their interactions with peers (Buchanan, et al, 2002).
  • Violence (homicide, suicide, and trauma) is a leading cause of death for children, adolescents and young adults, more prevalent than disease, cancer or congenital disorders (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2001).

What’s Happening

Six prominent medical groups (American Academy of Pediatrics, American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, American Psychological Association, American Medical Association, American Academy of Family Physicians and the American Psychiatric Association) warn of these effects of media violence on children:

  • Children will increase anti-social and aggressive behavior.
  • Children may become less sensitive to violence and those who suffer from violence.
  • Children may view the world as violent and mean, becoming more fearful of being a victim of violence.
  • Children will desire to see more violence in entertainment and real life.
  • Children will view violence as an acceptable way to settle conflicts.
    (Congressional Public Health
    Summit, 2000)

Many factors in the portrayal of media violence contribute to its affect on children and teens (Comstock, 1994, Huesmann, 2001):

  • What are the consequences for aggressive behavior? Is it rewarded or punished? Aggressive behavior on screen that lacks consequences, portrayed as justified, or is rewarded will have a greater effect on children.
  • When the violence is committed by an attractive or charismatic hero, with whom the child identifies, the effect of that violence will be greater.
  • When the child's attention is focused on the violence on the screen, causing the child to be engaged or aroused, the impact is greater.
  • If the child sees the violence in the show as being realistic, reflecting real life, the impact will be greater.

Tuesday, October 09, 2007

Pernyataan Menolak Praktik Hukuman Mati

Dengan ini dinyatakan bahwa saya sebagai pribadi:

1. menolak tegas praktik hukuman mati di Indonesia

2. mendesak untuk dilakukannya amandemen perundangan tentang vonis hukuman mati

3. mengganti hukuman mati dengan praktik hukuman lainnya yang lebih manusiawi

4. mendesak pemerintah untuk mengadakan serta memodifikasi penjara atau lembaga pemasyarakatan dengan level keamanan penuh dan terpencil
kepada terhukum vonis hukuman mati

Ideology and Signs in Advertising

The main aim of persuasive advertisements is to manipulate the consumer/receiver into taking a certain action. The advertisement reflects the time and spatial setting of its origin. It also reflects the social relationships prevalent within that culture, and forms values that establish a range of ideological references.

The term ideology was first used in 1796 to refer to a science of ideas (Nöth 1991: 377). Three versions of the concept exist: the value-neutral concept, the pejorative sense and the universalistic sense. The first concept refers to ideology as any system of norms, values, beliefs or Weltanschauungen directing the social and political attitudes of a group. The second type refers to a system of false ideas, representing the false consciousness of a social class. The third concept identifies ideology with the sphere of ideas in general (Nöth 1991: 377-8). This view coincides with the view of psychologists that ideology is the way that attitudes are organised into a coherent pattern (Fiske 1982: 144).

Bahktin (1990: 378) links ideology with semiotics when he writes:

Everything ideological […] is a sign; without signs, there is no ideology. The domain of ideology coincides with the domain of signs. Wherever a sign is present, ideology is present too. Everything ideological possesses semiotic value.

Advertisements become a vehicle for ideology by reflecting ideas, beliefs and opinions that are a reflection of the society within a specific culture. This idea is echoed by semioticians such as Fiske (1982: 145) who argue that ideology is determined by society, not by the individual’s set of attitudes. According to Maria Campos (1983: 978) "ideology attains material existence. It becomes concretised, it acts surreptitiously, it never presents itself as ‘being ideological’". The ideology is generated by the signs that represent the advertisement and its message.

In other words, the ideology-semiotic relationship is established when the ideology makes use of signs to convey its message; thus the ideology precedes the signs. "It becomes communicable as it is turned into a code" (Campos: 1983: 978). This code then relates the ideology by portraying certain deeds, habits or institutions.

On the one hand, advertisements make the consumer/receiver believe that they reflect reality, but in fact they only create a world which makes allusions to reality. The same can be said for ideology. Ideology becomes the category of illusions and false consciousness according to Fiske (1982: 145). As Campos (1983: 978) says, "Ideology takes certain elements as a starting point but changes them at the moment of expression." The falseness of the ideology is used by the ruling class to maintain dominance over the working class. This can clearly be seen in African countries, of which South Africa is no exception, and the advertising campaigns used.

Multinational companies propagate their products and the virtues and lifestyles of the capitalist, American Dream by reflecting this and many other values and ideologies in their advertising. Examples include motor cars (Ford), clothing (Levi) and perfume (Calvin Klein). The underlying message is that all that is American is good and should be followed.

A Discursive-Semiotic Approach to Cultural Aspects in Persuasive Advertisements

INTRODUCTION

The combination of discourse analysis and semiotic analysis brings together two disciplines that have not traditionally been used by translators to deal with the transference of cultural aspects in translation.

Much confusion still prevails amongst theorists regarding the exact definitions of discourse and semiotics. Discourse is often seen as only referring to the spoken word. Stubbs (1983: 9) differentiates between text and discourse: "one talks of written text versus spoken discourse".

Semiotics is often confused with semiosis. In both cases a distinct definition will be presented for these terms to avoid any confusion or ambiguity. These two disciplines will be discussed separately, starting with discourse.

Definitions of Discourse

Various views on the term "discourse" will be compared, as well as various views on discourse analysis. Often theorists use text and discourse interchangeably; others define discourse as spoken words only, and text as written words. In both instances context is seen as a separate function. A distinction is made in this dissertation between these terms and their function, and a working definition of the different terms will be formulated for use and application.

Traditionally, discourse has been treated as "a continuous stretch of (especially spoken) language larger than a sentence…a discourse is a behavioural unit which has a pre-theoretical status in linguistics…" (Crystal 1991: 106). According to this definition discourse is primarily seen as spoken language (a language act: parole).

Discourse covers a vast field and definitions abound. This can be illustrated by the opinions of various theorists. Yule and Brown (1987: 1) state that "the analysis of discourse, is necessarily, the analysis of language in use. As such, it cannot be restricted to the descriptions of linguistic forms independent of the purposes or functions which these forms are designed to serve in human affairs".

It becomes clear that the production of discourse is a social act and therefore written discourse is the representation of this social act. This social act implies that communication takes place. This feature will be further discussed under the communicative function of discourse.

Some theorists distinguish between text and discourse as two separate terms and concepts, an opinion that will be later refuted. Salkie (1995: ix) states that "text or a discourse is a stretch of language that may be longer than one sentence. Text and discourse analysis is about how sentences combine to form texts by means of cohesiveness and coherence".

Widdowson (1983: 9) also distinguishes "textual cohesion, recognizable in surface leixis, grammar and propositional development, from discourse coherence which operates between underlying speech acts".

Newmark’s (1988: 54) definition is similar to Salkie’s definition, in that he states:

The analysis of texts beyond and ‘above’ the sentence – the attempt to find linguistic regularities in discourse…its main concepts are cohesion – the features that bind sentences to each other grammatically and lexically – and coherence – which is the notional and logical unity of a text.

Two important aspects (standards of textuality), coherence and cohesion, are mentioned in the above definitions. Coherence refers to those elements that make a text hang together, and refers to textual and contextual aspects of discourse. A coherent text is "a text whose constituent parts (episodes, sentences) are meaningfully related so that the text as a whole ‘makes sense’, even though there may be relatively few markers…" (Fairclough 1992: 83).

Cohesiveness or cohesion refers to "how clauses are linked together into sentences, and how sentences are in turn linked together to form larger units in texts" (Fairclough 1992: 77). This can be achieved by repetition, conjunctive words, near-synonyms or vocabulary from a common semantic field. Cohesion deals with the textual aspect of discourse.

The relevance of these two aspects is that they are important in text production, and thus in discourse analysis. Should one or both of these features be absent, the text would not be able to function as a meaningful whole. This in turn would have an impact on the context of the discourse, and thus have many ramifications for the translator of the text who would have to make sense of disjointed elements in the advertisement to be translated.

A shortcoming in Salkie’s definition is that it does not account for texts that are shorter than a sentence and consist only of one or two words, or spoken language. In the case of advertisements, especially print advertisements, there is often little or no text and the emphasis is on the visual material supported by very little text. For instance, a print advertisement could consist of only visual material and one word, such as a brand name or an exclamation. This proves that discourse does not necessarily have to consist of lengthy sentences. The coherence would be brought about by the interaction between the word(s) and the visual material, but there would be very little or no cohesion due to the lack of text.

Newmark’s definition suggests that discourse is an all-inclusive term for the written and spoken language used in a social act. Stubbs (1983: 1) points out "that language and situation are inseparable". The situation forms the basis of the context. It follows thus that context and text are two inseparable aspects that work together to constitute the discourse. Thus a working definition for discourse as perceived in this dissertation can be formulated.

Working definition of discourse

Text refers to all linguistic aspects in written or spoken natural language, i.e. the words used to form the utterance or written text. It could be a word, a sentence, a paragraph, or a longer stretch of language, in other words any length of words used to create text. In semiotic terms language represents a sign system. In other words, language is a linguistic sign system creating meaning in a given context.

The information provided by the text must be related to the discourse as a whole; that is with the text as coherent collection of semantic relations, in other words "…the quality of perceived purpose, meaning and connection…" (Cook 1994: 25).

The text takes place within a given situation or context. Context consists of various factors, not all of which always appear at once in a given situation.

According to Cook (1992: 1) context includes:

substance - the physical material which carries or relays text;

music and pictures;

paralanguage - meaningful behaviour accompanying language, such as voice quality, gestures, facial expressions and touch (in speech) and choice of typeface and letter sizes (in writing);

situation - the properties and relations of objects and people in the vicinity of the text, as perceived by the participants;

co-text - text which precedes or follows that under analysis, and which participants judge to belong to the same discourse;

intertext - text which the participants perceive as belonging to other discourse, but which they associate with the text under consideration, and which affects their interpretation;

participants - they are described as senders, addressers, addressees and receivers; and

function - what the text is intended to do by the senders and addressers, or perceived to do by the receivers and addressees. (This element will be dealt with separately.)

For the purposes of this dissertation this definition of context suffices and can be used as such. In persuasive advertisements, usually more than one of these aspects works together to form the context in which text production takes place. In semiotic terms, the different aspects create or represent signs (context) that generate meaning to perform a persuasive function together with the linguistic signs (text).

Therefore, advertisement discourse is defined as text occurring within a specific context.

Discourse analysis

It is vital for the translator to keep in mind that text cannot exist without context and vice versa. The main assumption is that, in persuasive advertisements, the text (language) is subject and sensitive to the context. Context includes knowledge of elements existing outside the text (knowledge of the world) as well as how these elements contribute to create a certain frame of reference and/or a cultural identity.

The culture in which a certain advertisement is created forms part of the context. Schiffrin (1987: 4) confirms this view by saying that "… language always occur(s) in a context, but its patterns – of form and function, and at surface and underlying levels – are sensitive to features of that context". When translating a persuasive advertisement, the translator has to be sensitive to this because "language is potentially sensitive to all of the contexts in which it occurs, and, even more strongly, language reflects those contexts because it helps to constitute them" (Schiffrin 1987: 5).

Advertisements always rely on the relation between the text and its context; the one cannot survive without the other. The receiver senses this relationship and decodes the message accordingly. The context of the advertisement determines how the receivers will perceive the message. The context is embedded in a specific culture, whether it is a language-related culture or a sub-culture.

The task of discourse analysis is to identify the cultural aspects and determine their role in the persuasive advertisements in view of transferring them in the translation process.

Knowledge of discourse analysis is important for the translator to:

  • identify the text and context;
  • isolate and describe the inherent elements in the text and context;
  • determine how these elements interact in the discourse;
  • identify cultural aspects; and
  • determine how the above-mentioned points function in the communication process.

ADVERTISEMENTS AS DISCOURSE

Advertisement discourse challenges the translator more than any other discourse because of its very nature and the multitude of elements that constitute its existence. Cook (1992: 4) states that there are hundreds of discourse types "which merge into each other and defy exact definition". This is particularly relevant to the nature of advertisements: an advertisement could be several types at once. For instance, a persuasive advertisement could display characteristics of a joke, a song and cartoon at the same time. In an attempt to deal with the translation of cultural aspects in advertisements, the characteristics and the function of this communicative event have to be discussed. However, it would not be reasonable or justified to formulate one definitive meaning of what constitutes advertisements: the definition would be limiting - a contradiction in terms.

Characteristics

The various characteristics of advertising as identified by Cook (1992: 214) apply to the broad spectrum of advertisements, in whatever form. These characteristics cover the most important characteristics inherent to all forms of advertising. The translator can use these guidelines to determine whether a discourse is an advertisement if it displays one or more of these characteristics.

The features below are prototypical of advertisements rather than definitive. (They have been arranged in order of importance as viewed by the study. The characteristics from number 26 are the author’s additions.)

  1. They have the typical restless instability of a new discourse type.
  2. They seek to alter addressees’ behaviour. (Persuasive advertisements are prime examples.)
  3. They change constantly. (Advertisements for a specific product change intermittently.)
  4. They are a discourse on the periphery of attention. (Advertisements are not regarded as being "serious".)
  5. They are unsolicited by their receivers. (Advertisements appear in the media, e.g. on television.)
  6. They are parasitic: appropriating and existing through the voices of other discourse types. (In magazines, newspapers and on television and radio.)
  7. They merge the features of public and private discourse, and the voices of intimacy and authority, exploiting the features common to both. (Private conversation and public addresses can be used.)
  8. They use various substances for discourse (e.g. a perfume strip in a magazine).
  9. They are embedded in an accompanying discourse (e.g. in a newspaper).
  10. They provoke social, moral and aesthetic judgements, either positive or negative.
  11. They are often heard in many contradictory ways simultaneously.
  12. Advertisements provoke controversy (e.g. Bennetton advertisements).
  13. They are multi-modal and can use pictures, music and language, either singly or in combination (e.g. television commercial).
  14. They are multi-submodal, in their use of language and can use writing, speech and song (e.g. radio advertisement).
  15. They contain and foreground extensive and innovative use of paralanguage (e.g. body language in a television commercial).
  16. They foreground connotational, indeterminate and metaphorical meaning, thus creating fusion between disparate spheres (e.g. Mercedes-Benz with luxury).
  17. They make dense use of intra-modal and inter-modal parallelisms.
  18. They use a heteroglossic narrative.
  19. They make extensive use of intra- and inter-discoursal allusion.
  20. They are presented in short bursts (e.g. television commercial of 30 seconds).
  21. They follow a principle of reversal, causing them to change many features, as soon as they become established, to the opposite.
  22. They are identified by their position in an accompanying discourse.
  23. They use their space and time to give pleasure.
  24. They use code-play.
  25. They answer a need for display and repetitive language.
  26. Advertisements, as verbal art, are detrimentally constrained by the need to fulfil the wishes of their clients.
  27. They infiltrate new technology and media (e.g. on the Internet).
  28. They (unnecessarily) create need.
  29. They sell a lifestyle. (Fun-loving people smoke Peter Stuyvesant cigarettes and visit exotic holiday destinations.)
  30. They are a form of mass communication.

A persuasive advertisement could contain one, all or a combination of these characteristics. There are no set rules which determine that persuasive advertisements that use a specific medium should display certain characteristics. Advertisements are in a constant state of flux. Although the message of two products might be the same, different mediums could change the characteristics of the two advertisements.

Function

In the broadest sense advertisements either persuade or inform receivers in terms of their functionality. The main function of a persuasive advertisement is to persuade the receiver to take a specific action, in other words the receiver is directly manipulated to change or modify his/her (consumer) behaviour. Elements of information can also be present. The intended function can only take place if the discourse fulfils its communicative role.

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